In effect, "presidents" in this system function the same as prime ministers do in other parliamentary systems. East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies. Smallness, Corbett et al. For these countries, classifications have been made by the author for the time periods for which data is lacking (Liechtenstein 18661990, Monaco 18621993). Values have also been compared with the scores countries have received on the Polity 2 scale (an effective measure of the degree of democracy, ranging from 10 to +10) in the Polity IV-dataset (Marshall et al., Citation2018). In recent years, it has become much easier to make cross-country comparisons on the basis of political practice. He came to power in 1964, and almost immediately clashed with prime minister Papandreou over the control of the military. Semi-constitutional monarchies exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority. After the liberation of Greece, there was strong opposition towards the monarchy. The next step is to assess to what extent power dimensions are cumulated in the units of analysis. Often, these changes were not reflected in the constitutions of the countries. The constitution transformed Bhutan into a constitutional monarchy as the monarch gave up a significant part of his powers. Did you know that with a free Taylor & Francis Online account you can gain access to the following benefits? (also Dahl & Tufte, Citation1973, pp. one: to protect their independence, constitutional monarchs are in many jurisdictions forbidden by law or custom from making public comments that could be interpreted as politically controversial. The Italian experience resembles the Yugoslavian one in the sense that the monarch retained some powers as the country transited from autocracy to democracy, after which autocracy was restored. A second category is composed of somewhat larger countries, with a population ranging from 1 to 3 millions, whereas all other countries are considered large. By institutional fidelity they refer to the fact that the birth and existence of small states are linked to actions taken by monarchs at crucial moments in history, which means that there is a tendency to consider the monarchy an essential component of the identity of the state (Corbett et al., Citation2017). As pressures for democratic reforms started in the absolute monarchy, King Tupou IV and his government responded by using all the strategies that Huntington outlines, including attempts to co-opt progressive elites, repression, prosecution, and intimidation (Corbett et al., Citation2017, p. 695). However, the monarch continued to be an influential (although not dominant) actor in Laotian politics until the end of the monarchy in 1975, when the communists came to power. After the fall of the military regime, voters approved the introduction of a republican form of government by a clear majority. 2 The motivation for choosing 0.4 as a cut-off point is to make sure that no relevant case is left out from the study. The following year the new king postponed the scheduled elections indefinitely and concentrated executive powers into his own hands, whereby Nepal returned to authoritarian rule. Consequently, democratic reforms could not take place until Tupou IV died in 2006 and was succeeded by Tupou V. A new constitution, which restricted the powers of the monarch, was adopted in 2010. ", "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept A New Political System Model", "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns", "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns", "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland", " ", "Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-Presidentialism: Bringing Parties Back In", "Bulgaria's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015", "Croatia's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2010", "Iceland's Constitution of 1944 with Amendments through 2013", "Ireland's Constitution of 1937 with Amendments through 2012", "San Marino: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report", "Kiribati's Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1995", "South Africa's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2012", "Micronesia (Federated States of)'s Constitution of 1978 with Amendments through 1990", "Europe:: Norway The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency", "Chad's President Idriss Dby dies 'in clashes with rebels', "Army colonel on Guinean TV says govt dissolved, borders shut", "Guinea coup attempt: Soldiers claim to seize power from Alpha Cond", "Mali president arrested: Mutiny leaders for Mali coup 2020 don close borders, impose curfew afta resignation of Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keta", "Myanmar Junta's Political Prisoners Since Coup Now Number 10,000", "Analysis: Year post-coup, cracks in Sudan's military junta", "EU: Provisional Taliban government does not fulfill promises", "Yemen president cedes powers to council as Saudi Arabia pushes to end war", Countries categorized by system of government in 20th century at Historical Atlas of 20th Century, A Chronology of political history based on Government form, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_system_of_government&oldid=1152138156, No constitutionally-defined basis to current regime, Ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence, Presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence, Monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions, Presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence, All authority vested in a committee of the nation's military leaders for the duration of a state of emergency; constitutional provisions for government are suspended, Power constitutionally linked to a single political movement, This page was last edited on 28 April 2023, at 12:54. For the sake of validity, I have complemented the dataset by Boix, Miller and Rosato by making use of V-dems Liberal democracy index (D) (v2x_libdem). Specifically, monarchies in which the monarch's exercise of power is unconstrained by any substantive constitutional law. There is generally no prime minister, although if one exists, in most cases they serve purely at the discretion of the president. Permission is granted subject to the terms of the License under which the work was published. The second option was to combine monarchical powers with democracy, or, in Huntingtons (Citation1968, p. 180) words, to institutionalize competitive coexistence in the polity of two independent sources of power. Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, and Thailand have constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or ceremonial role. Since the dataset does not cover the period 20162017, I have for these two years classified the countries of the world into the categories democracy or autocracy.Footnote1 Countries classified as democracies by Boix, Miller and Rosato are included in the study. Monarchical reign has often been linked with military authority. The countries are included in the present study but their classifications along the nine power dimensions are based on other sources.Footnote3 Table 1 gives an overview of the population of cases. The constitution allocates the rest of the government's power to the legislature and judiciary. Which of the following bodies would be likely to succeed in removing the head of government if it took actions (short of military force) to do so? (Yes = 5, head of state). The results also showed, that while semi-constitutional monarchic forms of government tend to emerge in rather similar settings and under similar circumstances (i.e. How the Constitutional Monarchy Works. 4 Sometimes it is not easy to draw the line between inheritance and elections. V-dem dataset. However, within this category of countries the powers of the monarch can still vary, which makes it necessary to apply a further categorisation. The issue of executive power sharing in democratic countries with a monarch as head of state has received little scholarly attention. [3], Certain states have been defined as having more than one system of government or a hybrid system for instance, Poland possesses a semi-presidential government where the President appoints the Prime Minister or can veto legislation passed by parliament, but its Constitution defines the country as a parliamentary republic and its ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence.[4][5][6][7][8][9]. Bhutan had been a hereditary monarchy since 1907 when the country enacted a new constitution in 2008. 110111). f HOG control over (C) (v2exctlhg). Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda is a single Caribbean nation. In the present study, countries must be democratic in order to qualify as semi-constitutional monarchies. Thus, much in line with Corbett et al. Table 1. 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. The introduction of a republic form of government in 1974 constitutes an example of a case where the monarch gradually loses his legitimacy among the population by stretching his constitutional prerogatives to its limit. To learn about our use of cookies and how you can manage your cookie settings, please see our Cookie Policy. Personalisation, again, stems from the assumption that relations between the people and the rulers become more intimate in small entities. Establishing cut-off points along the power scale is highly problematic and, to a certain extent, arbitrary. In practice, Governor-Generals are chosen by the parliaments and/or prime ministers of the countries and often the persons chosen to this position are local politicians or dignitaries. 10271028). In order to remove a prime minister or their cabinet from power, the president may dismiss them or the parliament can remove them by a vote of no confidence. According to the constitution from 1962, the Prince is the dominant (in fact, the only) actor in the exercise of executive powers and has very far reaching powers in the legislative sphere; he has exclusive right to initiate laws, absolute veto powers and can dissolve the legislature at will. This leaves us with 16 possible power combinations, presented in Table 3. Italy turned to democratic rule in 1919. In general, empirical findings strongly supported these propositions. The third strategy available for the monarch was to try to maintain his or her power, for instance by allowing persons with a middle-class background to receive high positions in the government, by fighting modernisation or by intensifying repression. Here, I have chosen to apply a generous criterion for inclusion in the category semi-constitutional monarchies. The dataset does not contain extensive information on regime characteristics for the European miniature states Liechtenstein and Monaco. In Greece, the monarchy was restored in 1935, after a referendum installed (and probably heavily rigged) by Prime minister and General Georgios Kondylis. (Citation2013), Luxembourg is classified as a democratic country since 1890. To begin with, I exclude the power to appoint the prime minister from further analysis for the reason outlined above. Thresholds within the size category are, to some extent, always arbitrary.